INTRODUCTION

Marital harmony is the globally important social phenomenon, which plays vital role in our life. Successful marital relationship based on many factors but economic resources are considered to be most essential.   Various studies have been conducted on this issue   Behnke & Mcdermind, (2004) studied economic factor in relation to family well-being e.g Voyandoff (1990) studied economic distress and family relations.  Ross & Mirowsky (1992) and Yadollahi (2009) studied that employment of spouses  and the sense of control in various types of stressors of marital life. Diener and Diener (2001) investigated  that wealth is related to many positive outcomes in life.  Jorgensen & Butler (2010) reported various ethical issues among the couples with reference to their psychological conflicts other than economic.

Many researchers have concluded the negative effects of economic hardship on marital quality and stability (e.g. Voydanoff, 1990; Oggins, 2003; Miller et al., 2003).   Gudmunson et al (2007) found, economic strain is directly linked to increase  couple disagreements.  Kerkmann, Thomas, Jean, & Scot’s study (as cited in Pimentel 2009) reported that financial problems significantly contributed to lower reported marital satisfaction among married couples. Economic strain is directly linked to increased couple disagreements and has direct impact on marital adjustment (Kinnunen and Feldt, 2004).All these findings are likely to reflect the fact that financial issues are a frequent trigger point for conflict  among the couples led to more frequent fights and decrease in marital harmony (Gudmunson et al., 2007). Study performed by Brody et al (1994) has proved that family income was associated with higher marital happiness and lower marital conflict. Similarly, the study by Amato & Rogers (1997) demonstrated that a low husband’s income and employment factor is a significantly associated with marital problems and low marital quality and it increases the likelihood of marital disruption (South and Spitz, 1986). Looking the research findings it is reasonable to hypothesized that financial satisfaction and marital satisfaction is directly correlated (Miller’s study as cited in Frisby, 2007). Recent study by Nunes, (2008) also proves that   marital satisfaction is mainly associated with economic factor.

In a recent Mori survey, 35 percent of women and 26 percent of men agreed that the economic downturn had “reduced the quality of their marriage” (Government Equalities Office, 2009). Another study supported the relationship between finances and marital satisfaction by identifying that 15% of marital satisfaction was predicted by financial factors (Kerkmann, Thomas,Lown, &Allgood ,2000). Survey conducted by Frisby (2007) also shows that family income affect the degree of marital satisfaction.

Researchers sought to define and identify causal relationships between economic stress and relationships between husband and wife and parent and child. James( 2009)proposed a “family stress model” in which economic pressures cause adults emotional distress, which disrupts both the marital relationship and parenting. Marshall and colleagues (1997); Zedlewski (2002); Behnke & Mcdermind (2004)  found that low family income and limited benefits not only have bad effect on mutual relations of couples but it also has negative influences on child and family well-being. Jacobs & Silverberb (2002) found Maternal disclosure of financial concerns is related to difficulties in adolescent daughters’ adjustment and such disclosure acts as a mediator in the relationship between family financial hardship and adolescent daughters’ adjustment in a sample of 62 adolescent girls and their recently divorced mothers.

The association between economic stress, individual psychological state and relationship quality may not be the same for all couples. However, for couples that were observed to have better problem-solving skills in a task, high levels of marital conflict did not lead to such high levels of marital dissatisfaction (James, 2009). Blekesaune (2008) used the data from the British Household Panel Survey between 1991 and 2005 and found that low income increased the risk of partnership dissolution. Similar study In Finland conducted by Kinnunen and Feldt (2004) concluded husband’s unemployment is strongly associated with his marital adjustment. Financial stress is not, of course, confined to times of recession, but is a continual feature of life for some families. However, in a recession, this is spread more widely (James, 2009).

Conger (1990) proposed that economic hardships and declines in marital satisfaction are mediated through economic pressure, which produces emotional distress and negative marital interaction patterns. Economic hardships engendered feelings of economic pressure. This pressure was related to the emotional distress husbands and wives felt which, consequently, gave rise to more negatively and conflict in the marital relationship.

Grant &  Barling (1992) has reported that economic factors are responsible increases violence within family (Straus & Gelles, 1986; Obradovic & Odradovic, (2006).

Evidence has suggested that people with higher income felt happier, more satisfied and adjusted with their lives because higher income could be used to have a better lifestyle through greater leisure opportunities and improved nutritional intake, fewer uncertainties, better access to health services and improved living environment through better housing and the ability to move to places that are more prosperous (Ayub,,& Iqbal, 2009). Social stress research has repeatedly identified low income and income loss as a major social stressor (Elder, 1974). Much of the marital researches done before 1980 identified financial problems as one of the primary reasons for couple’s marital dissatisfaction and dissolution (Albrecht, 1979; Levinger, 1976). However, although finances remain a potentially problematic issue for couples, but later studies suggest that financial problems may be less influential than previously believed (Andersen, 2000; Kitson & Sussman, 1982; Thurnher, Fennnn, Melichar, & Chiriboga, 1983; Amato & Rogers, 1997) thus inflating the perceived importance of financial distress as predictor for marital dissolution (Kendal, 2003 cited in Dean, et al 2005). Money is one of the major causes of frustration in marriage and family relationships; there is a significant relationship between finance and happily married relationships. In a study conducted by the Consumer Credit Counseling Service of people who came to the organization for debt or budget counseling, 60 percent of the married respondents reported fighting about money with their spouses. (Washburn,Carolyn.,& Christensen2008).

Marriages stressed by economic uncertainties have also been more likely to be disrupted (South and Spitz, 1986). Dean (2005) explored possible linkages between financial problems and divorce and marital conflict. Many studies has   concluded  that  couples facing more financial obstacles and spending less time together are more at risk for divorce (Poortman 2005; Cleek & Pearson, 1985).  Sayer concluded that  , the transition to divorce is associated with economic stressors for most women (as cited  in Craig & Behnke ,2008).

Research Methodology

Research design

Main focus of this study was to find the effect of economic resources on marital adjustment.  It has been hypothesized that better economic resources lead to better marital life and resultantly improves the quality of marital adjustment. In this study, economic resources and marital adjustment were used as independent and dependent variables respectively. The effect of economic resources on marital adjustment was investigated by making the comparison between married women from nuclear family system and joint family system which is also an important source of conflicts among the spouses in Pakistan. The research design for the present study was quantitative, where as cross sectional research design was employed to compare and investigate the data. This study was carried out in to three phases. In first phase, two types of married women were categorized, one, working women and the second non-working women (i.e. housewives). At the second stage, personal data was collected with the help of “bio-data form” i.e. monthly income, family system. At the third phase sample was selected and data was collected through survey from Abbottabad city from a sample of 200 married women selected on a simple random technique. The first simple of 100 working women was drawn, which was further divided into; living in nuclear family (n=60) and living in    joint family system (n=40). The second sample of 100 non -working women was drawn which was equally divided in   nuclear family system and joint family system.

Research Instrument

In the present study ‘sub scales ‘Economic’ and ‘General pattern of adjustment’ of Marital Adjustment Scale-Urdu (MAS-U) (Kazmi , 2002) was used for data collection. MAS-U is an attempt to establish a framework from which marital adjustment can be estimated in Pakistani culture by the researcher and practitioner. MAS-U was designed and intended to measure marital adjustment in Pakistani culture.  All other marital scales are in English language and their cultural adaptation is quite laborious phenomenon. The MAS-U is a standardized instrument in Urdu language and thus is able to evoke real response from the interviewees.   MAS-U is a reliable instrument the determine the degree of (1) Spouses interpersonal frustration and dissatisfaction which quit common in our culture,  even rational reasons elicits or not; (2) Spouse’s capability to express their feelings on various issues; (3) Spouses’ satisfaction within available economic resources and their style of non vocal communication ; (4) Spouse’s specific communication style about the routine marital life issues; (5) Women’s  satisfaction within existing family systems their approach towards family systems common in   Pakistan. The MAS-U consisted of 126 items that loaded on four factors. Participants marked their responses on a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 (Strongly agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, Strongly disagree). The internal consistency of MAS-U has been reported with a Cronbach alpha of 0.82. Along with some evidence of construct validity was also determined.  Whereas, for the ‘Economic’ Cranach alpha is 0.9 and for ‘General pattern of adjustment’ it is 0.82.

Procedure of the study:

To collect data for the present study 200 married women were selected in which 100 were working married women and 100 were non-working married women. The Marital Adjustment Scale was administered personally by the researcher in face to face fashion. Purpose of study was explained to each participant that the research was the part of thesis work and the information they given will be remained confidential and only uses for research purpose. The respondents were asked to response as strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree. In the present study, to explore the economic resources of working and non-working women, income was taken into consideration. Husband’s income was also used while measuring the economic status. For measuring the economic resources of workingwomen income of husband and wife both were used. While measuring the economic resources on non-working women only husband’s incomes were used.

Analysis and interpretation of the results

After the data collection, the next step was the interpretation of the data. First, the item was assigned the score of one to five for the positive statements and the reversed scoring was used for the items having negative tone. Then the statistical analysis was applied on data. T-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were applied on data to assess the significance of the results. Total marital adjustment score of the MAS-U ranged from 195 to 300 with mean of 247 (SD=27.2) for workingwomen and 211 to 348 with mean of 272.9 (SD=30.24) for non-workingwomen. The score on economic resources ranged from 16 to 65 with mean of 33.38(SD=11.4) for workingwomen and 18 to 70 with mean of 49.9(SD=12.75) for non-workingwomen. Responses to questionnaire items were coded and enter in computer. The statistical analysis was carried-out by using SPSS .

Table 1

Number of items

M

Sd

Cronbach  Alpha

16

75.0

13.5

0.82

The relaiability statistic for the self–constructed Marital Adjustment Scale show cronbach,s Alpha to be reliable at .82

Mean, Variance, standard Deviation, and Cronbach’s Alpha computed for the communication in Marital Adjustment (n=200)

Table 2 Mean, Standard Deviation and t-score of working and non-working women on economic resources.

Working    Women    n=100

Non-working Women  n=100

M

SD

M

SD

t

Economic Resources

33.38

11.45

49.9

12.75

9.645

Table 2 shows the t-test values and analysis of the sample data of 200 women and their economic resources. It indicates the difference between the economic resources of working and non-working women. It shows that there is significant difference between the economic resources of working and non-working women (t=9.645; df= 198;p=0.001)

Table 3 Mean, Standard Deviation and t-score of working and non-working women on marital adjustment.

Working    Women    n=100

Non-working Women  n=100

M

SD

M

SD

t

Marital adjustment

247.0

27.2

272.9

30.24

6.381

Table 3 shows the t-test values and analysis of the sample data of 200 women and their marital adjustment. It indicates the marital adjustment of working and non-working women. It shows that there is significant difference between the marital adjustment of working and non-working women (t=6.381; df= 198; p=0.001)

Table 4  significant difference among marital adjustment of women with respect to low medium and higher income.

Groups

N

Mean

SD

f

Total Sample

200

41.7

14.6

1036

Low Income

95

45.38

14

Medium  Income

62

41.64

15

High Income

43

33.69

11.75

Table 4 shows one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the sample data of 200 women, their income is divided into low, medium and as well as high income. It shows the significant difference among three groups (f=10.36;df=199;p<0.001).

Discussion

Present study aimed at to explore the relationship between marital adjustment and economic resources.  It was hypothesized that the workingwomen have better economic resources as compared to non-working women. Moreover, the study also investigated the difference between marital adjustment of working and non-working women. Results support the hypothesis.

The results of a t-test reveals that significant differences exists between the economic resources of working and non-working women (t=9.645; df =198; p<0.001). Mean score of working and non-working women are differ as mean score of working women on economic resources was M=33.3(SD=11.4) and mean score of non-working women was M=49.9(SD=12.7). Thus workingwomen have better economic resources to fulfill their requirements. It reduces their life stresses and intern effects  their marital happiness and satisfaction. It concludes that  workingwomen are to more satisfied and martially adjusted as compared to non-working women. Study also concludes that workingwomen have better economic resources because both husband and wife earn more money as compared to non-working women. Study confirms the finding of Ayub & Iqbal ( 2009) who concluded that;  people with higher income felt happier, more satisfied and adjusted with their lives,  have a better lifestyle through greater leisure opportunities improved nutritional intake, better access to health services and improved living environment through better housing. Present study showed significant relationship between finance and happily married relationships which resembles to the study of Washburn, Carolyn., & Christensen (2008).

Working and non-working women responded differently on the sub scale of economic resources of MAS-U. The high score on the scale showed that the subject has some economic problems. In this research score of workingwomen on economic resources was low that indicates they have less economic problems and thus more martially adjusted.  Score of non-working women was high that reveals they are facing stress due to economic and consequently enjoying less marital happiness. On the other hand low marital adjustment of non working women proposed that economic hardships and decline in marital satisfaction are mediated through economic pressure, which produces emotional distress and negative marital interaction patterns. Conger  (1990)  also supported the  results. The economic pressure is related to the emotional distress husbands and wives felt, which, in turn, gave rise to more negatively and conflict in the marital relationship. Present findings analogous to Grant &  Barling’s(1992) study that Lower income  associated with poorer marital functioning  and increases family violence (Straus & Gelles, 1986).  Bloom, Niles & Tatcher, 1985; Godwin, 1990; Israelen, 1990; Nortarius & Markman’s study (1993) confirmed that financial matters are closely related to family discord, marital problems.

Another hypothesis of this study that the “workingwomen are more martially adjusted as compared to non-working women” was proved. The non-working women obtained high score on marital adjustment scale as compared to working women. It shows that their adjustment with their husbands is not good (t=6.381;df=198;p<0.001), Table 3. It reveals the significant difference between the marital adjustment of working and non-working women. These two groups are also differ in their mean score as mean score of workingwomen was 247.0 (SD=27.2) and the mean score of non-working women was 272.9 (SD=30.2). So, due to better economic resources working women are martially adjusted and nonworking women are martially mal-adjusted. Maladjustment of non-working women is due to low economic resources that is similar to Elder (1974) who concluded that economic hard times increased rate of martial distress and results also conform Blekesaune’s  (2008) study. Present findings coincide with Brody et al (1994) who proved that family income was associated with higher marital happiness and lower marital conflict.

One way of variance (ANOVA) was applied on data to find-out the impact of economic resources. The whole sample was divided in to three groups that were belong to low, middle and higher socio-economic status. Table 4 indicates the result of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and shows the significant difference among three groups (f=10.30;df=199;p<0.001). It shows that the subjects who belongs to low-income level (M=45.38;SD=14.11) have to face more economic problems as compared to other groups. The result also reveals that the subject who belongs to middle-income level (M=41.64;SD=15.10) and higher-income level (M=33.69;SD=11.75) have enough economic resources to fulfill their needs. The findings by other researches also confirmed that low income can cause distress in life as Marshal and colleagues (1997) and financial issues within the family or marriages are frequently reported as a presenting problem. (Daly, 2003; Isareisen & Hatch, 2005 cited in Jorgensen & Butler 2010),low family income has negative influence on  family well-being( Zedlewski,2002).

Conclusion

The main hypothesis of this study was to explore the effect of economic resources on marital adjustment. The present study has identified that working married women have better economic resources as compared to non-working women. Despite of their busy routine life they are more martially adjusted as compared to non-working.

It is concluded that money/income creates the problems in daily life activities and it can effects one’s marital adjustment as it is proved in this research. Couples with better economic resources are martially adjusted as compared to those who have limited economic resources. Well-adjusted partners tend to be more supportive to each other and encounter fewer quarrels.

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A two year public community college located in Senatobia , Mississippi , in United States , the Northwest Mississippi Community college serves 11 counties. Widespread campus activities and leisure engagement facilities puts the college among student-friendly academies in the university directory of Mississippi .

Brief History

Established in 1928, the college serves Tate, Desoto, Marshall , Benton , Tunica, Panola, Lafayette , Quitman, Calhoun, and Yalobusha districts in northwest Mississippi and is one of the fifteen state community and junior colleges in Mississippi .

Campus

With enrollment of nearly 7,500 students overall, the campus has over 3,000 students. Around 1,200 reside in the residence halls of the college. Around 3,000 students are enrolled at DeSoto Center in Southaven , Mississippi and another 1,200 have been enrolled at Lafayette , Yalobusha Center in Oxford , Mississippi . Main campus in Senatobia has 247 acres of land while the satellite campuses in Southaven and Oxford have additional areas. Around 43 buildings are there in Northwest campus. The McCormick Building became one of the Mississippi Landmarks in 1993. Similarly, with 28 classrooms, glass and steel tower, four computer labs, a practical nursing lab and two science labs, DeSoto County became the Olive Branch, Mississippi career-technical campus, established in 1985. Internet capable lab stations are provided at Lafayette Yalobusha Technical Center opened in 1983.

Programs Offered

Degrees offered include associate degrees in arts and science and multiple certificates. Technical and vocational subjects like automotive, agriculture, collision, medical office, and cosmetology are available. Part time courses are offered. Evening classes are available in summer.

Unique Features

30 student organizations and leisure activities like pep rallies, swimming, dancing, free movies, concert, and cookouts are the unique offers of the college.

Admission

Open door admission policy is followed by the academy. Requirements are official copies of SAT or ACT scores and the later is mandatory for Mississippi students. Dual credit and advance placements are the college admission credits accepted.

Accreditation

Northwest Mississippi Community College is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and can award the Associate of Arts and Associate of Applied Science degrees as well as professional career certificates.

Student Support

Northwest Mississippi Community College provides career and academic counseling, PT cost defraying employment, career placements and on campus library facilities.

Financial Aids

Northwest Mississippi Community College offers federal, state, local, and institutional grants, scholarships, and student loans. Aids are applied using the FAFSA form. Financial assistance is readily available for students in the college, the details of which can be viewed at the state university website.

So, you have packed your things, taken you favorite laptop and a teddy bear and now you are leaving your home for such a long period of time. What is waiting for you? Nobody knows for sure. College life treats all students differently. The way you will feel on campus depends on the type of your personality, your upbringing, your attitude to life, studies, and people surrounding you. Still, if you are a non-local student, there will be at least one or two people who will be very close to you and whom you should get accustomed to, they are your roommates. Is it necessary to explain you that a roommate can become closer than a blood brother and there can be a roommate who can be considered a curse for all your karmic sins from the previous incarnations?

Keeping peace with your roommate

1.Decide on the noise first if all. Discuss if it is possible for you to study and listen to music at the same time. Some people get information only when they read it aloud. If you are such a type, think about your roommate, it will hardly be pleasant for him to study to constant murmur.

2.Settle the matter with neatness. A person who is a messy type can become a real punishment for a neat one.

3.At the same time, people who are obsessed with cleanness are not pleasant roommates either.

4.Make a schedule that will plan your activity and allocate your duties. This will help you to avoid unnecessary squabbles.

He is not a roommate, he is a monster!

If you want to coexist with our roommate peacefully, try to avoid the conduct described below. It is typical of a roommate of a monster type.

1.Taking a shower during two hours.

2.Borrowing things without their owner’s consent.

3.Inviting a dozen of guests when you roommate has to study and take an exam the next day.

An Excellent Student’s Guide to Boston

Boston is one of the most entertaining places to live in as a student. There are plenty of things to do on a limited budget, and lots of nice coffee shops to pass the time while writing a paper or cramming for finals. This helpful guide has some tips on great places to go whether you’re looking for a day of fun or have work to do.

Cheap and Fun Things to do in Boston

It’s hard to find fun things to do on a student’s income, but Boston has an abundance of adventures to offer if you look in the right place. Whether you’re looking to go out with friends, or go on an inexpensive date, there’s always something for you to choose.

Frog’s Pond:

This public pond offers ice skating in the winter months, and provides a charming atmosphere for getting out when the cold tempts you to stay in. Admission is only $4 for adults, and you can rent skates for only $8. It’s the perfect place to take a date before heading out to a night on the town, and will be a memory that stays fondly in your mind over the years.

Shopping in Filene’s Basement:

This staple of Boston, which has been around since 1908, is a treasure trove of designer clothing for anyone looking to get great clothes at bargain-basement (literally) prices. Finding the perfect item at Filene’s is an experience in and of itself, with clothes piled in bins throughout the store. Always an entertaining outing, this one-of-a-kind clothes shop is a must for any student living in the Boston area.

Fenway Park:

Go to the stadium on a sunny afternoon and watch the renowned Boston Red Sox take on their opponent. The history of the park is evident throughout, and one can’t help but find themselves thinking back to long-gone days where thousands of fans crowded in to watch Ted Williams and other great players. Tours are also available for $12 and offer the chance to learn about the iconic stadium’s history, with the added bonus of a fantastic overlook atop the infamous Green Monster.

Studying in Boston

Every college student knows that coffee shops are a great place to go when you need to get some studying done. The quiet, thoughtful atmosphere gives you a place to focus without the distraction of roommates or the noise of a common area. There are a number of good coffee shops in the area, but one that consistently gets great reviews for both its atmosphere and drinks is Darwins Ltd. The shop is located in Harvard Square at 1629 Cambridge St. Cambridge, MA 02138. It’s about 8 miles from central Boston, so it should only take about 10 minutes to get there.

Whatever you do…

Make sure that you make the most of your time in this charming city. It’s easy to get caught up in school work, a job and all the other things that come with being a student. Just remember that it’s important to take time to learn about life as well as the things that you’re studying in school.

This article is presented by Le Cordon Bleu College of Culinary Arts Boston. Le Cordon Bleu College of Culinary Arts Boston offers Le Cordon Bleu culinary education classes and culinary training programs in Boston, Massachusetts. To learn more about the class offerings, please visit Chefs.edu/Boston for more information.

The jobs mentioned are examples of certain potential jobs, not a representation that these outcomes are more probable than others. LCB Boston does not guarantee employment or salary.  All trademarks are property of their respective owners.

Many new multi level marketing systems seem to pop up almost everywhere just like mushrooms. This makes it even more difficult for a lot of people to decide on whether one MLM opportunity would be the best for them or not. However, although there are a lot of new comers in the industry, you should not underestimate them, since some of them actually have good offers, such as GeneWize Life Sciences.

Wise Beginnings

Just like other MLM ventures today, GeneWize is backed up by a fully established company. It’s actually a fully-owned subordinate of Gene Link Inc., which is a company specializing in genetic biosciences. Generally, the company markets itself as a beauty, health, and wellness company that specializes in products that have excellent quality, which are supported by DNA-based genetic tests that makes the goods customized and even more suitable for their users. The company aims to deliver personalized solutions in the fields of beauty, health and wellness and their goal is to aid people in feeling and looking better, to have healthier and even longer lives.

The Main Principle

The company pays emphasis and importance on the effects that a person’s genes has on his/her overall state of being. Each person in the world has their own set of DNA, which is your genetic blueprint and is responsible for making you look like what you are now. According to research, body chemistry is genetically determined. The company believes that by targeting certain genes, you can achieve a big change not merely on how you digest your food to make use of nutrients, but even also on how your body reacts to internal conditions, physical activity, environmental pressures and a lot more other factors.

Considering all the possible factors and problems faced by humanity today, GeneWize Life Sciences wanted to utilize the technology and knowledge that their company has in order to produce personalized health products just for the market.

Money Making Opportunity

There are various ways on how you can make money with GeneWize. Generally, there are four methods, namely: retail sales, two-team bonus, matching bonus and company pools & incentives.

Retail Sales: This method works whenever a customer purchases a LifeMap Nutrition System, then you will get a retail profit. If you get to enroll four people, then you wouldn’t have to pay anything anymore.

Two-Team Bonus: Whenever you enroll other Affiliates, they would be placed into either your right or left sales team. During the end of the week all your Affiliates’ sales volume would be summed up. You’ll earn ten to twenty percent of your smaller team’s business volume. This is regardless on wherever the volume comes from; you’d still have 10%-20% of the final team business volume.

Matching Bonus: Other than the Two-Team Bonus you’ll also get income from the Enroller Tree, which is based on the people you have enrolled and their enrollees too. No placement is needed. Each month you’ll get the matching check bonus ranging from 10%t to 40% of the 2-Team Bonus.

Incentives & Company Pools: GeneWize also offers shares and incentives in bonus pools that are based on ranking and performance. So, if you’re an active member and has good performance, then you’re probably up for a pretty high incentive during pay period.

To learn more about GeneWize and how to grow this business in ways most network marketers will never know, follow the link in the resource box now.

History

Trombiculidae, from Greek (“to tremble”) and Latin culex, gen. culicis (“gnat” or “midge”), was first described as an independent family by H.E. Ewing in 1944. But references to chiggers go as far back as sixth century China, and by 1733, the first recognization of trombiculid mites in North America were made. In 1758, Linnaeus described a single species Acarus batatas (Now Trombicula batatas). However, most information about chiggers came from the problems arose during and after World War II.

Then, when the family was first described, it included two subfamilies, Hemitrombiculinae and Trombiculinae. Womersley added another, Leeuwenhoekiinae, which at the time only contained Leeuwenhoekia (Oudemans, 1911). Later he erected the family Leeuwenhoekiidae for the genus and subfamily, having six genera; they have a pair of submedian setae present on the dorsal plate.

Distribution

Trombiculid mites are found throughout the world. In Europe and North America, they tend to be more prevalent in the hot and humid parts. In the more temperate regions, they are found only in the summer (in French, harvest mites are called aotat, or “August” flies). In the United States, they are found mostly in the southeast, the south, and the Midwest. They are not present, or barely found, in far northern areas, in high mountains and in deserts. In the British Isles, the species Trombicula autumnalis are called harvest mites, in North America the species Trombicula alfreddugesi, and the species Trombicula (eutrombicula) hirsti which are found in Australia and are commonly called the scrub-itch mite.

Life cycle

The life cycle of a harvest mite

The length of the mite’s cycle depends on species and environment, but normally last 2 to 12 months (but may be longer). The number of cycles in a year depends on the region. For example, in a temperate region, there might only be 3 a year, but in tropical regions, the cycle might be continuous all year long. Adult harvest mites overwinter in protected places such as slightly below the soil. Females become active in the spring, and once the ground temperature is regularly above 60  (15.6 ), she lays eggs, up to 15 eggs per day in vegetation when soil temperatures are 60  (15.6 ). Therefore, from April through early autumn up until the first frost, humans are susceptible to chigger bites. The larvae congregate in groups on small clods of earth, in matted vegetation and even on low bushes and plants, where they have more access to a prospective host. The eggs are dormant for about six days, after which the non-feeding pre-larvae emerge, with only three pairs of legs. After about six days, the pre-larva grows into its larval stage.

Larva

The larvae, commonly called chigger, are about 0.170.21 mm (0.0070.008 in) in diameter, normally light red, covered in hairs, and move quickly relative to size. There is a marked constriction in the front part of the body in the nymph and adult stage. The eggs are round in shape.Chigger is also an alternate term for the chigoe flea (Tunga penetrans), a sand flea found in tropical and subtropical climates in the Americas and Africa.

The name chigger originated as a corruption of chigoe. Also called scrub mite, red mite and several other names, they are found throughout temperate and tropical zones. Chiggers come in 3 stages: the deutovum, unfed larva, and engorged larva. Once in the egg developing, the larvae enclosed in a membrane in addition to the eggshell, are called deutovum. After hatching, the unfed larvae migrate to the highest area and wait for a host.

The larval stage is the only parasitic stage of the mite’s life cycle. They are parasites to many animals. About 30 of the many species in this family, in their larval stage, attach to various animals, including amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, and feed on skin. This often causes an intensely itchy red bump in humans (who are accidental hosts).

Chiggers attach to the host, pierce the skin, inject enzymes into the bite wound that digest cellular contents, and then suck up the digested tissue through a tube formed by hardened skin cells called a stylostome. They do not burrow into the skin or suck blood, as is commonly assumed. Itching from a chigger bite may not develop until 2448 hours after the bite, so the victim may not associate the specific exposure with the bite itself. The red welt/bump on the skin is not where a chigger laid eggs, as is sometimes believed. The larva remains attached to a suitable host for 3 to 5 days before dropping off to begin its nymph stage.

Chiggers do not like sunlight or humidity. During the wet season, chiggers are usually found in tall grass and other vegetation. During dry seasons, chiggers are mostly found underneath brush and shady areas.

Chiggers as disease vectors

For more details on this topic, see Scrub typhus.

Although the harvest mite chigger usually does not carry diseases in North American temperate climates, the Leptotrombidium deliense are considered a dangerous pest in East Asia and the South Pacific because they often carry Orientia tsutsugamushi, the tiny bacterium that causes scrub typhus, which is known alternatively as the Japanese river disease, scrub disease, or tsutsugamushi. The mites are infected by the Rickettsia passed down from parent to offspring before eggs are laid in a process called transovarial transmission. Symptoms of scrub typhus in humans include fever, headache, muscle pain, cough, and gastrointestinal symptoms.

Nymph

Once the larva has engorged itself on skin and has fallen off its host, the larva develops to its nymph stage. Like the larva, the nymphs are also sexually immature, but more closely resemble the adult.

This stage consists of three phases; the protonymph, deutonymph, and tritonymph, respectively. The protonymph and tritonymph morphology are unusual in species of Trombiculidae. The protonymph phase combines larval and protonymph characteristics with deutonymph and tritonymph morphology. The protonymph is an inactive transitional stage. The active deutonymph develops an additional pair of legs (for a total of eight). Lastly, it re-enters inactivity during its transitional tritonymph phase before growing to adulthood.

Adult

As a deutonymph and adult, trombiculid mites are independent predators that feed on small arthropods and their eggs, also found to eat plant material. They live in soil, often found when digging in yards and gardens. Adults can be beneficial to human beings, since they often eat the eggs of other pests, such as mosquitoes.

Trombiculiasis

Trombiculiasis, also called Trombiculidiasis, is the term coined for the rash caused by trombiculid mites.

Prevention

Chigger bites on the foot and ankle

Chiggers are commonly found on the tip of blades of grasses to catch a host, so keeping grass short, and removing brush and wood debris where potential mite hosts may live, can limit their impact on an area. Sunlight that penetrates the grass will make the lawn drier and make it less favorable for chigger survival.

Chiggers seem to affect warm covered areas of the body more than drier areas. Thus, the bites are often clustered behind the knees, or beneath tight undergarments such as socks, underwear, or brassieres. Areas higher in the body (chest, back, waist-band, and under-arms) are affected more easily in small children than in adults, since children are shorter and are more likely than adults come in contact with low-lying vegetation and dry grass where chiggers thrive.

Chigger bites can be minimized by the use of tightly woven protective clothing, including long pants, which make it hard for them to reach such spots. Application of repellent to the shoes, lower trousers and skin is also useful. Because they are found in grass, staying on trails, roads, or paths can prevent contact. Dusting sulfur is used commercially for mite control and can be used to control chiggers in yards. The dusting of shoes, socks and trouser legs with sulfur can be highly effective in repelling chiggers.

Another good strategy is to recognize the chigger habitat to avoid exposure in the first place. Chiggers in North America thrive late in summer, in dry tall grasses and other thick, unshaded vegetation. Insect repellents containing one of the following active ingredients are recommended: DEET, catnip oil extract – nepetalactone, citronella oil or eucalyptus oil extract. However, in 1993 issue a study reported on tests of two commercial repellants: DEET and citrus oil: “All chiggers exposed on the filter papers treated with DEET died and did not move off the treated papers. None of the chiggers that were placed on papers treated with citrus oil were killed.” It was concluded that DEET was more effective than citrus oil.

Chiggers can also be treated using common household vinegar (5% acetic acid). For personal protection, apply insect repellent to feet, legs, and mid-section.

Treatment

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia’s quality standards. The specific problem is: date-June 2009. Please improve this section if you can. (June 2009)

Chigger rash 36 hours after exposure

To reduce the itching, an application of anti-itch cream containing hydrocortisone, calamine, or benzyl benzoate is often used (though calamine has been shown not to be effective). Hydrogen peroxide and capsaicin cream has also been effective. Another good way to relieve itching is to apply heat either by using a hand held shower with water hot as one can stand, or by heating the bite with a hair dryer. The heat method will relieve itching for about four hours and will require repeating. Applying fingernail polish to the affected area does not kill the chigger; the chigger is actually no longer present by the time a rash is noticed.

The most effective way of removing chiggers is by washing the affected areas with warm water and soap. This must be done as soon as possible after exposure or possible exposure. Carefully wash the ankles, feet, behind the knees, and under the arms and chest. An Epsom salt bath may help alleviate itching. If one is near the seashore, wading for a few minutes in salt water will both get rid of the mites on one’s skin and clothing and also alleviate the itching from their bites. Clothing, especially pants and socks, should be immediately discarded after returning from areas where exposure may have occurred. However, once symptoms appear, it may be too late to prevent further bites. Taking a hot bath when already covered with chigger bites may in fact be very uncomfortable and increase itching symptoms. Do not rub and scratch the skin aggressively, as this can break the skin and leave it vulnerable to a more serious infection.

Some claim that the chigger is still in the bite, perhaps mistaking the tiny red center of the bite for the chigger itself. In some cases, the chigger is still present when the bite appears. A 10X magnifier can be used to see the chigger and it may be removed with fine-tipped tweezers. Once it is gone, covering the bite with nail polish, calamine lotion, vaseline or other petroleum jelly, baby oil, or anything else may help the pain and itching, but will neither suffocate the chigger nor help the bites heal any faster. Medication such as antihistamines or corticosteroid creams may be prescribed by doctors, and might help in some instances.

References

^ “Trombiculidae Ewing, 1929 (Family)”. SysTax – database query. Universitt Ulm. http://www.biologie.uni-ulm.de/cgi-bin/system/zoosys.pl?id=97056&stufe=5&typ=ZOO&lang=e&sid=T&pr=nix&only=no&B4=ok&syno=y&valid=y. Retrieved 2009-03-06.

^ Shatrov, A. B.; Kudryashova, N. I. (2008). “”Taxonomic ranking of major trombiculid subtaxa with remarks on the evolution of host-parasite relationships (Acariformes: Parasitengona: Trombiculidae)”". Annales zoologici (Warsaw) 58: 279287.

^ Smith, GA; V Sharma, JF Knapp, BJ Shields (1998). Pediatric emergency care. ed. The summer penile syndrome: seasonal acute hypersensitivity reaction caused by chigger bites on the. 14 (2 ed.). U.S.: Pediatric emergency care. pp. 116118. http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=info:49gX7aDTc_oJ:scholar.google.com/&output=viewport&pg=1. Retrieved May 22, 2009.

^ Ballantine, Todd (1991). Tideland treasure: the naturalist’s guide to the beaches and salt marshes of Hilton Head Island and the southeastern coast. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press. pp. 14. ISBN 0-87249-795-X.

^ Mandell, Gerald L.; Bennett JE, Dolin R, (2005). “294″. in 6th. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases.. Philadelphia: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0443086869, 9780443086861.

^ Goldman, Lee; Dennis Arthur Ausiello (2007). Cecil Medicine (23, illustrated, revised ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 1032.

^ a b c d e f g Durden, Lance A. (2002). Medical and veterinary entomology (3rd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 458. ISBN 9780125104517. http://books.google.com/books?id=u4RGXGkRq5YC&pg=PA458&lpg=PA458&dq=trombiculidae+”life+cycle”&source=bl&ots=InFLxmvnBe&sig=tk8VWaihOEllvoiuzM9E49K32Cw&hl=en&ei=WFS8SYO6JJHAM92U0aoI&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result.

^ a b c d Potter, M. F.; P. G. Koehler (March 1995. Revised February 2000. Reviewed January 2006.). “Invisible Itches: Insect and Non-Insect Causes”. University of Florida, Depart. pp. 14. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/MG/MG34300.pdf. Retrieved 2009-05-22.

^ Scarborough, John (1998). Medical and Biological Terminologies. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 122. ISBN 0806130296.

^ Bowman, Dwight D.; Hendrix, Charles M.; Lindsay, David S.; Barr, Stephen C. (2002). Feline clinical parasitology. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 38586. ISBN 0813803330.

^ E.W. Ewing (Oct. 1946). The Journal of Parasitology. 32. pp. 435440. http://www.jstor.org/pss/3272913.

^ “Aotat : Definition” (in French). Vulgaris – medical. http://www.vulgaris-medical.com/encyclopedie/aoutat-522.html. Retrieved 2009-05-19.

^ Vater, G. (2006). “The geographical distribution of the harvest mite Neotrombicula autumnalis (Acari: Trombiculidae).” (in German). CABI (Bezirks-Hygieneinspektion und -Institut Leipzig, Abteilung Medizinische Parasitologie, 7010 Leipzig, German Democratic Republic.: CABI): 12. http://www.cababstractsplus.org/abstracts/Abstract.aspx?AcNo=19830598840. Retrieved May 18, 2009.

^ Hirst, A. (1929). “”On the crub itch mite of North Queensland (Trombicula hirsti Sambon)” A possible carrier of tropical pseudotyphus”. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 22 (5): 451452. http://download.journals.elsevierhealth.com/pdfs/journals/0035-9203/PIIS0035920329900675.pdf.

^ a b c “ArmaXX Pest Control”. http://www.armaxx.com/chigger.html. Retrieved 2008-06-24.

^ Gosling, Peter J. (2005). Dictionary of parasitology. Boca Raton: CRC Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-30855-0.

^ “ACES Publications : CHIGGERS : ANR-1109″. http://www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/A/ANR-1109/. Retrieved 2008-06-24.

^ Finke, D.L. (1998-10-01). “University of MD Chigger Fact sheet” (PDF). http://www.hgic.umd.edu/_media/documents/hg66.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05/25.

^ About.com: Chiggers Pediatric Dermatology Basics

^ University of Florida: IFAS Extension

^ About.com: Chiggers Pediatric Dermatology Basics

^ Service, Mike. Medical Entomology for Students (4, illustrated, revised ed.). Published by Cambridge University Press, 2008. pp. 250252 of 289 pages. ISBN ISBN 0521709288, 9780521709286. http://books.google.com/books?id=wRrof4RLDuwC&pg=PA251&dq=harvest+mites+scrub+typhus.

^ “CDC – Scrub Typhus Reemergence in the Maldives”. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol9no12/03-0212.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-24.

^ Takahashi, M; Misumi, H; Urakami, H; Misumi, M; Matsumoto, I (2003). “Life cycle of Leptotrombidium pallidum (Acari: Trombiculidae), one of the vector mites of scrub typhus in Japan (Author abstract)”. Ohara Sogo Byoin Nenpo (Japan) 45: 1930. ISSN 0285-3671. http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/article/200401/000020040103A0828660.php.

^ Baumann T (March 2001). “New treatment for harvest mite infestation”. Archives of Internal Medicine 161 (5): 769. doi:10.1001/archinte.161.5.769. PMID 11231715. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11231715.

^ Ogg, Barb. “Itchy Chiggers”. http://lancaster.unl.edu/pest/resources/chiggers(008).shtml. Retrieved 2009-05-19.

^ a b c M Bennett, Stuart (2003). “Mites”. Self published by author. http://www.the-piedpiper.co.uk/th5i.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-19.

^ Ho TM, Fauziah MK (March 1993). “Laboratory evaluation of two commercial repellants against Leptotrombidium fletcheri (Acari: Trombiculidae)”. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 24 (1): 1659. PMID 8362291.

^ Baumann T (March 2001). “New treatment for harvest mite infestation”. Archives of Internal Medicine 161 (5): 769. doi:10.1001/archinte.161.5.769. PMID 11231715. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11231715.

^ a b “Harvest mite infestation in cats”. Feline Advisory Bureau. November, 2008. http://www.fabcats.org/owners/skin/harvest_mite.html. Retrieved 2009-05-19.

^ Schalock, Peter C. (Last full review/revision December 2006). “Itching: itching and Noninfectious rashes”. The Merk Manuals Medical Library. http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec18/ch203/ch203b.html. Retrieved 2009-05-19.

External links

“Chiggers!” at Missouri Department of Conservation

Chiggers at Pestproducts.com

Iowa State University Department of Entomology Insect Information Note

NIH Medline Plus

Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet, Entomology, Chiggers, HYG-2100-98

Trombicula autmunalis

Taxonomic information at UniProt Consortium and NCBI

Categories: AcariHidden categories: Articles needing cleanup from June 2009 | All pages needing cleanup